Definition and Examples of Irony (Figure of Speech)

Definition and Examples of Irony (Figure of Speech) Irony is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Similarly, irony may be a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea. Adjective: ironic or ironical. Also known as  eironeia, illusio, and the dry mock. Three kinds of irony are commonly recognized: Verbal irony is a trope in which the intended meaning of a statement differs from the meaning that the words appear to express.Situational irony involves an incongruity between what is expected or intended and what actually occurs.Dramatic irony is an effect produced by a narrative in which the audience knows more about the present or future circumstances than a character in the story. In light of these different varieties of irony, Jonathan Tittler has concluded that irony has meant and means so many different things to different people that rarely is there a meeting of minds as to its particular sense on a given occasion (quoted by Frank Stringfellow in The Meaning of Irony, 1994). Etymology From the Greek, feigned ignorance Examples and Observations EarthA planet doesnt explode of itself, said drilyThe Martian astronomer, gazing off into the air- That they were able to do it is proof that highlyIntelligent beings must have been living there.(John Hall Wheelock, Earth)Kampenfeldt: This is a grave matter, a very grave matter. It has just been reported to me that youve been expressing sentiments hostile to the Fatherland.Schwab: What, me sir?Kampenfeldt: I warn you, Schwab, such treasonable conduct will lead you to a concentration camp.Schwab: But sir, what did I say?Kampenfeldt: You were distinctly heard to remark, This is a fine country to live in.Schwab: Oh, no, sir. Theres some mistake. No, what I said was, This is a fine country to live in.Kampenfeldt: Huh? You sure?Schwab: Yes sir.Kampenfeldt: I see. Well, in future dont make remarks that can be taken two ways.(Raymond Huntley and Eliot Makeham in Night Train to Munich, 1940)Gentlemen, you cant fight in here! This is the War Room.(Peter Sellers as President Merkin Muffley in Dr. Strangelove, 1964) It is a fitting irony that under Richard Nixon, launder became a dirty word.(William Zinsser)Irony in Mark Twains Novel Puddnhead WilsonDavid Wilson, the title character of Puddnhead Wilson, is a master of irony. In fact, his use of irony permanently marks him. When he first arrives in Dawsons Landing in 1830, he makes an ironic remark that the villagers cannot understand. Distracted by the annoying yelping of an unseen dog, he says, I wished I owned half of that dog. When asked why, he replies, Because I would kill my half. He does not really want to own half the dog, and he probably does not really want to kill it; he merely wants to silence it and knows killing half the dog would kill the whole animal and achieve the desired effect. His remark is a simple example of irony, and the failure of the villagers to understand it causes them immediately to brand Wilson a fool and nickname him puddnhead. The very title of the novel is, therefore, based on irony, and that irony is compounde d by the fact that Wilson is anything but a fool.(R. Kent Rasmussen, Blooms How to Write About Mark Twain. Infobase, 2008) Irony in Shakespeares Play Julius CaesarA classic example of irony is Mark Antonys speech in Shakespeares Julius Caesar. Although Antony declares, I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him, and declares that the assassins are honorable men, he means just the opposite.(Bryan Garner, Garners Modern American Usage. Oxford University Press, 2009)Uses and Characteristics of IronyIrony may be used as a rhetorical device to enforce ones meaning. It may be used . . . as a satiric device to attack a point of view or to expose folly, hypocrisy, or vanity. It may be used as a heuristic device to lead ones readers to see that things are not so simple or certain as they seem, or perhaps not so complex or doubtful as they seem. It is probable that most irony is rhetorical, satirical, or heuristic. . . .In the first place irony is a double-layered or two-story phenomenon. . . . In the second place, there is always some kind of opposition that may take the form of contradiction, incongruity, or incom patibility. . . . In the third place, there is in irony an element of innocence.(D.C. Muecke, The Compass of Irony. Methuen, 1969) An Age of IronyIt is sometimes said that we live in an age of irony. Irony in this sense may be found, for example, all throughout The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Suppose you hear a political candidate give a terribly long speech, one that rambles on and on without end. Afterward, you might turn to a friend sitting next to you, roll your eyes, and say, Well, that was short and to the point, wasnt it? You are being ironic. You are counting on your friend to turn the literal meaning of your expression, to read it as exactly the opposite of what your words actually mean. . . .When irony works, it helps to cement social bonds and mutual understanding because the speaker and hearer of irony both know to turn the utterance, and they know that the other one knows they will turn the utterance. . . .Irony is a kind of winking at each other, as we all understand the game of meaning reversal that is being played.(Barry Brummett, Techniques of Close Reading. Sage, 2010)Irony as Mass TherapyIron y has always been a primary tool the under-powered use to tear at the over-powered in our culture. But now irony has become the bait that media corporations use to appeal to educated consumers. . . . Its almost an ultimate irony that those who say they dont like TV will sit and watch TV as long as the hosts of their favorite shows act like they dont like TV, either. Somewhere in this swirl of droll poses and pseudo-insights, irony itself becomes a kind of mass therapy for a politically confused culture. It offers a comfortable space where complicity doesnt feel like complicity. It makes you feel like you are counter-cultural while never requiring you to leave the mainstream culture it has so much fun teasing. We are happy enough with this therapy that we feel no need to enact social change.(Dan French, review of The Daily Show, 2001) Alanis Morissettes IronicAlanis Morissettes Ironic, in which situations purporting to be ironic are merely sad, random, or annoying (a traffic jam when youre late, a no-smoking sign on your cigarette break) perpetuates widespread misuse of the word and outrages irony prescriptivists. It is, of course, ironic that Ironic is an unironic song about irony. Bonus irony: Ironic is widely cited as an example of how Americans dont get irony, despite the fact that Alanis Morissette is Canadian.(Jon Winokur, The Big Book of Irony. St. Martins, 2007)Direct expression, with no tricks, gimmickry, or irony, has come to be interpreted ironically because the default interpretive apparatus says, He cant really mean THAT! When a culture becomes ironic about itself en masse, simple statements of brutal fact, simple judgments of hate or dislike become humorous because they unveil the absurdity, friendliness, and caution of normal public expression. Its funny because its true. Honestly. Were all upside d own now.(R. Jay Magill, Jr., Chic Ironic Bitterness. University of Michigan Press, 2007) Alan Bennett on IronyWere conceived in irony. We float in it from the womb. Its the amniotic fluid. Its the silver sea. Its the waters at their priest-like task, washing away guilt and purpose and responsibility. Joking but not joking. Caring but not caring. Serious but not serious.(Hilary in The Old Country by Alan Bennett, 1977)Thomas Carlyle on IronyAn ironic man, with his sly stillness, and ambuscading ways, more especially an ironic young man, from whom it is least expected, may be viewed as a pest to society.(Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resartus: The Life and Opinions of Herr Teufelsdrockh, 1833-34)Irony DeficiencyIrony deficiency  is an  informal term for the inability to recognize, comprehend, and/or utilize  ironythat is,  a tendency to interpret  figurative language  in a  literal  way.-  Mobsters are reputedly huge fans of  The Godfather. They don’t see it as a tale of individual moral corruption. They see it as a nostalgia trip to better days for the mob.(Jonah Goldberg, The Irony of Irony.  National Review, April 28, 1999)-  Irony deficiency  is directly proportional to the strength of the political commitment or religious fervor. True believers of all persuasions are irony deficient. . . .Brutal dictators are irony deficienttake Hitler, Stalin, Kim Jong-il, and Saddam Hussein, a world-class vulgarian whose art collection consisted of kitsch paintings displayed unironically.(Jon Winokur,  The Big Book of Irony. Macmillan, 2007)-  Here is something ironic: We live at a time when our diets are richer in irony than ever before in human history, yet millions of us suffer from that silent crippler,  irony deficiency  . . . not so much a deficiency in irony itself, but an inability to utilize the abundance of irony all around us.(Swami Beyondananda,  Duck Soup for the Soul. Hysteria, 1999)-  Will people who detect a lack of irony in other cultures never stop to consider that this may be a sign of their own  irony deficiency? Maybe its defensible when the apes detect a lack of irony in Charlton Heston in  Planet of the Apes, but not when, say, Brits detect it in, say, Americans as a race . . .. The point of irony, after all, is to say things behind peoples backs to their faces. If you look around the poker table and cant tell who the pigeon is, its you.(Roy Blount, Jr., How to Talk Southern.  The New York Times, Nov. 21, 2004) The Lighter Side of IronyRachel Berry: Mr. Schuester, do you have any idea how ridiculous it is to give the lead solo in Sit Down, Youre Rocking the Boat to a boy in a wheelchair?Artie Abrams: I think Mr. Schue is using irony to enhance the performance.Rachel Berry: Theres nothing ironic about show choir!(Pilot episode of Glee, 2009)​Woman: I started riding these trains in the forties. Those days a man would give up his seat for a woman. Now were liberated and we have to stand.Elaine: Its ironic.Woman: Whats ironic?Elaine: This, that weve come all this way, we have made all this progress, but you know weve lost the little things, the niceties.Woman: No, I mean what does ironic mean?Elaine: Oh.​(The Subway, Seinfeld, Jan. 8 1992)Im aware of the irony of appearing on TV in order to decry it.(Sideshow Bob, The Simpsons)Math was my worst subject because I could never persuade the teacher that my answers were meant ironically.(Calvin Trillin)Lyn Cassady: Its okay, you can at tack me.Bob Wilton: Whats with the quotation fingers? Its like saying Im only capable of ironic attacking or something.​(The Men Who Stare at Goats, 2009) Pronunciation: I-ruh-nee

History of Sliced Bread, the Greatest Invention

History of Sliced Bread, the Greatest Invention A clichà © that just about every American knows The greatest thing since sliced bread. But how did this epoch-making invention become so celebrated? The story begins in 1928,  when  Otto Frederick Rohwedder created the greatest invention- pre-sliced bread. But, believe it or not, Rohwedders innovation was initially met with skepticism. The Problem   Before the invention of pre-sliced bread, bread of all kinds was either baked at home or bought in full loaves (not sliced) at the bakery. For both home-baked and bakery loaves of bread, the consumer had to personally cut off a slice of bread every time he wanted one, which meant rugged, irregular cuts. This was time-consuming, especially if you were making several sandwiches and needed many slices. It was also very difficult to make uniform, thin slices. A Solution This all changed when Rohwedder, of Davenport, Iowa, invented the Rohwedder Bread Slicer. Rohwedder began working on a bread slicer in 1912 but his initial prototypes were met with scoffs from bakers who were certain  that pre-sliced bread would quickly go stale. But Rohwedder was certain that his  invention would be a major convenience for consumers and did not let the bakers skepticism slow him down. In an attempt to address the staleness problem, Rohwedder used hatpins to keep the pieces of bread together in the hopes of keeping the loaf fresh. However, the hatpins continually fell out, detracting from the products overall convenience. Rohwedders Solution In 1928, Rohwedder came up with a way to keep pre-sliced bread fresh. He added a feature to the Rohwedder Bread Slicer that wrapped the loaf in a wax paper after slicing. Even with the sliced bread wrapped, bakers remained dubious. In 1928, Rohwedder traveled to Chillicothe, Missouri, where baker Frank Bench took a chance on this idea. The very first loaf of pre-sliced bread went on store shelves on July 7, 1928, as Sliced Kleen Maid Bread. It was an instant success. Benchs sales quickly skyrocketed. Wonder Bread Makes It Go National In 1930, Wonder Bread began to commercially produce pre-sliced loaves of bread, popularizing sliced bread and making it a household staple familiar to generations. Soon other brands warmed to the idea, and for decades there has been row upon row of sliced white, rye, wheat, multigrain, rye and raisin bread on grocery store shelves. Very few people living in the 21st century remember a time when there was no sliced bread, the universally-agreed-upon greatest thing.

Competition, Monopoly, and Oligopoly & Monopolistic Competitive Market Term Paper

Competition, Monopoly, and Oligopoly & Monopolistic Competitive Market Structure - Term Paper Example The research explained briefly on the perfect competitive market structure and revealed some features of this market structure. It described the way firms maximize profits with the help of diagrams, the researcher revealed the way they maximize profit at the equilibrium point in both short and long run. Lastly, the conclusion summed up the discussion, and the researcher provided some significant areas for further research study. The market is structured depending on varied factors and variation that determine the market structure of a particular firm in an economy. Competition is one of the factors or conditions that determines the structure of a firm. The economists assume that there are many buyers and sellers in the marketplace; hence, they compete favorably for the available products in the market. Therefore, competition in the market contributes to changes of prices for commodities; thus creating a shift in demand and supply curve. Furthermore, there are substitute products in t he marketplace; thus, when one product increases the prices, consumers chose the alternative of consuming substitute products. The buyers and sellers have the ability to influence prices for commodities, and this contributes to increased competition in the market. ... The buyers and sellers may exchange property rights and everyone in the market interacts voluntarily in order to achieve self-interest. The buyers and sellers interact; thus, they signal much information about the product through product prices. Successful sellers reduce prices in order to influence buyers and out-compete their competitor (Mankiw 2011, 36). The sellers can maximize profits in case the price exceeds the products costs. Monopoly A monopoly refers to a market structure whereby only a single producer or buyer for a commodity exists. The monopoly firms are the price makers because they are single sellers in the market. Monopoly is a single business firm and it is characterized by varied features including market restrictions because of high costs and production of homogenous products. The government has powers to control or restrict entries into the market by creating barriers. The barrier to market entry may result because the firm may have exclusive rights of accessing the natural resources. For instance, the Kenya Power and Lighting Company is a monopolistic firm because the government takes control over the resources. The same case applies to Saudi Arabia oil industry because the Saudi government is the sole control of the natural oil reserves. The market also have a patent right that impede other competitors from entering into the market. The monopoly firm is classified into numerous features including perfect monopoly whereby the single seller does not have substitute products. Therefore, there is no perfect competition, but such firms are extremely rare. Another one is imperfect monopoly whereby the single seller does not have close substitute products meaning that the

MARKET RESEARCH Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MARKET RESEARCH - Essay Example â€Å"Different kinds of market research need to be conducted during different periods in the life cycle of a company and those of a product† (Hewitt, 2011). For a market oriented company like Kellogg’s, market research adds business value and improves the company’s competitive advantage. Before launching a new product, Kellogg’s usually conducts a market research to understand the preference of consumers concerning new products and this helps them to reduce the chances of failure. The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research are that the qualitative one is subjective and the quantitative one is mainly objective. Inductive method is used in qualitative while the deductive method is used in quantitative research. The qualitative research is text-based whereas the quantitative one is number-based. The method used under qualitative research involves focus groups and in-depth interviews while surveys and structured interviews are the meth ods adopted in quantitative research. Qualitative research focuses on smaller groups, on the other hand, the quantitative one deals with larger groups. The former one spends more time for selecting subjects, while the latter takes more time on data processing. The data collected using qualitative research is unstructured whereas quantitative research collects structured data. â€Å"Kellogg’s has flourished through skilful marketing of good products, and by creating and sustaining a highly valuable brand name† (Kellogg’s: Revitalizing a valued character, n.d). Kellogg’s company faces the problem of innovation when compared to other competitors. Further qualitative and quantitative research is necessary to know the consumer preference and to increase the demand for commodities. Competition from other companies can only be reduced by introducing new innovative products, which is possible through market research. The problem of substitute goods is faced by th e company, which can be tackled only through perfect knowledge about the market and this further increases the need for market research. To expand market internationally, the knowledge of foreign market is a must and so further qualitative and quantitative research is required. Section 2- Findings from marketing research: Critically analyze the 4 stages that Kellogg’s underwent in order to launch the new Crunchy Nut bites. Provide a critical analysis for each stage. Also provide 2 suggestions to improve Kellogg’s marketing research in this instance. Kellogg’s is concentrating on importance of market research during the launch and development of Crunchy Nut bites. Kellogg’s undertook four different stages of research in order to develop this new product. Stage 1: Discovery: Kellogg’s is a market oriented organization, wherein, market oriented means that the entire organization focuses on the needs of its customers. So, in order to find the needs of the customers, Kellogg’s has done a research to identify a set of new food ideas that would be appropriate for developing the new Crunchy Nut product. The company has also conducted secondary research to find out modern trends in the cereal market and to acknowledge new products, flavors and food from around the world. â€Å"Kellogg’s have a world-class food research and development facility, Kellogg’s food scientists, nutritionist and engineers turn wholesome grains and other

Examining Theories On Deviance And Deviant Behavior Criminology Essay

Examining Theories On Deviance And Deviant Behavior Criminology Essay The conditions under which deviant behavior exists have presented an enduring question for researchers. Within the literature the majority of definitions of deviance share one commonality: that social norms and values subjectively label behaviors as deviant. Similar to the number of theories of deviance there exist a number of motivations why individuals choose to engage in deviant behavior. Existing theories-general strain, anomie, labeling, control, and learning-examine these factors and attempt to clarify the hows and whys of deviant behavior. The most common factors which facilitate individual deviance include personal strain, social disorganization, a lack of self-control, and the perception that the benefits for engaging in deviance outweighing the potential costs. Because of these variations there is currently no universally-accepted theory of deviance. Introduction An urgent question in contemporary social sciences is how and why certain behaviors, attributes, or classes of individuals come to be defined as deviant.  [1]  Since social groups make the rules, deviant behavior results from individuals who fail to adhere to said rules. When behaviors are defined as deviant it is assumed that they will either promote or inhibit individual motivation to engage in such acts and will evoke certain social responses which serve to influence subsequent behavior by those within said society.  [2]  A number of theorists attempt to identify a commonality to the different types of deviant behavior. The underlying theme is that this type of behavior offends societys normative order and deviance becomes a theoretical construct of this consensus. There exist a number of theories which seek to define how individuals and their behavior are identified as deviant. Definitions of and Motivations for Deviant Behavior Despite a wide variety of definitions of deviance there is consensus that deviance refers to behaviors or attributes manifested by specified kinds of people in specified circumstances that are judged to violate the normative expectations of a specified group.  [3]  This consensus perspective serves to promote collective agreement as to what core values, norms, and goals should be. Behavior that falls outside of the specified parameters are deemed deviant. The degree of deviance is directly correlated to the perceived serious of the punitive response it elicits. Many questions abound as to individual motivations to engage in deviant behavior. Fundamentally, if one anticipates that satisfaction will ensue from engaging in the behavior then he will do so. Hirschi (1969) asserts that the motivation for deviance is always present and that research should examine the circumstances which permit individuals to act on these motivations.  [4]  In another view, Merton (1938) argues that societal strain increases motivation for deviance in order to achieve certain unattainable culturally-sanctioned goals.  [5]  Where the majority of individuals will embrace conformity as a response to strain others resort to deviance. Similarly, Tittles (1995) control balance theory assumes that individuals have a strong need to exercise control over themselves and to escape having control exerted over them by others while Katz (1988) argues that the motivation to deviance occurs to protect ones self esteem, encourage a desired reputation, establish autonomy, [ or] demonstrate competence, for example.  [6]   These theories all share the presumption that deviance is motivated by the need to adapt to psychological distress which results from the failure to achieve desired goals through conventional means. Accordingly, when pushes, or psychological impulses which compel an individual to engage in deviant behavior, and pulls, or the attraction of deviant opportunities, interact then motivation for deviance increases.  [7]  Deviance results from individuals motive to engage in deviant behavior being stronger than the motive not to amidst the existence of the opportunity to do so. Theoretical Foundations There are two primary types of theories to explain deviance: structural and processual. Structural theories are labeled sociological theories while processual ones are termed social psychological theories due to the differences in goals and scope.  [8]  Structural theories emphasize the relationship of deviant behavior to particular structural conditions within society and attempt to explain why deviance is higher in certain areas, such as those with lower socioeconomic status.  [9]  On the other hand, processual theories seek to describe the processes by which people engage in deviant behavior by attempting to explain the conditions which lead to the commission of deviant acts.  [10]  With respect to scope, structural theories address the epidemiology, or distribution in time and space of deviance and processual theories focus upon the etiology, or specific causes, of deviance.  [11]   Specific Theories of Deviance General Strain Theory (GST) GST addresses the interrelatedness of strain and its emotional response, individual coping mechanisms, and deviance.  [12]  As a theory it focuses not upon strain itself but upon individual responses to strain and seeks to identify those characteristics which enable non-deviant responses amid strain. Sharp, Brewster Love (2005) argue that certain types of strain create certain actions which influence delinquent behaviors. Anger, for example is an emotional response which has a high likelihood of encouraging deviant behavior. Therefore, where there is a strain-particularly one perceived as unfair-low social control creates pressure which, in turn, causes deviant behavior.  [13]  Research indicates that gender is a strong predictor of strain-induced deviance with males more overt in their responses than females who tend to internalize strain. GST has been used considerably in the study of juvenile deviance. Repeated exposure to stressful life experiences has been found to both escalate and accelerate juvenile delinquency and depending upon when during ones life-course trajectory the strain occurs different implications ensue. The literature suggests that involvement in delinquency begins to increase during early adolescence, peaking around age 16 and 17, and followed by a decline in such behavior.  [14]  Agnew (1997, 2006) claims that this life-course trajectory highlights that adolescence is a period of high transitions, that adolescents perceive their environment as negative more so than adults, and that there is an increased propensity for juveniles to react to adversity through deviant behavior.  [15]  The lack of useful coping mechanisms in juveniles makes it difficult to react to strain more effectively. Anomie Theory According to anomie theory-much like GST-deviance results from social disorganization in that elements in society promote deviant behavior by making such behavior a feasible adjustment to society. Where the earliest form of this theory hypothesized that anomie results from a failure to achieve positively-valued goals Agnew (2001) expanded upon this theory by including that anomie can also result when positive stimuli are removed and when negative stimuli are applied.  [16]  One criticism of anomie theory is that it assumes universality in what should be defined as deviant and how most individuals should behave; however, in reality, deviance is a relative concept so this universality is erroneous.  [17]   Labeling Theory Labeling theory presents an interactionist perspective to the study of deviant behavior by stressing the importance of the processes through which society labels a particular act as deviant and the subsequent negative social sanctions which influence the individual to engage in further deviance.  [18]  Becker (1973) claims that deviance is a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender.  [19]  Therefore, while the act or the person may not be inherently deviant, existing social controls create deviance by defining acts that the majority believes to be so and, consequently, labeling individuals who engage in such acts as deviant. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy by amplifying the very phenomenon that it is intended to suppress.  [20]  Of primary importance is that subsequent events serve to reinforce the deviance because an individual internalizes the label attached to him by societys stigmatizing and creates secondary, or tertiary, deviance. The labeling itself serves to ensure that every society has a percentage of deviants which is critical to maintain the majority consensus.  [21]   Control Theory Control theory is similar to anomie and social disorganization theories to the degree that deviance results from the lack of social controls on individual restraint to engage in deviant behavior.  [22]  Durkheim (1933) asked why people conform to social norms instead of why they engage in deviant behavior. Under this theory it is assumed that everyone would engage in deviant behavior if given the chance, that a small amount of social controls will increase deviance, and that there exists a central value system which defines deviance in society.  [23]  There are four components of an individuals societal bond which serve to prevent deviance: attachment to specific groups through affection, respect, and socialization; commitment to accepting conforming behavior; involvement in non-delinquent behavior; and a belief in the dominant value system of any particular group.  [24]  When social bonds are reestablished or strengthened then the deviant behavior ceases. Accordingly, individuals who engage in deviant behavior do so due to low self-control. Under this theory low self-control is comprised of six personality traits: anger, impulsivity, preference for simple tasks, risk-seeking, being more physical than mental, and being self-centered.  [25]  Gottfredson Hirschis (1990) self-control theory asserts that inadequate child-rearing results in lowered self-control which facilitates a predisposition to engage in deviant behavior.  [26]  They also claim that individuals who engage in one type of deviant act will commit other deviant acts. Learning or Socialization Theory These theories suggest that deviance is a learned behavior similar to how non-deviant individuals learn conforming behavior. By attempting to distinguish variations in behaviors theorists assume that differences in rates of deviance among various groups can be determined. One of the most widely-cited learning theories is Sutherlands (1947) differential association theory which postulates that deviant behavior results from normative conflicts in neighborhood structures, peer group relationships, and the organization of family in society.  [27]  The fundamental tenets of Sutherlands theory are that criminal behavior is learned, that learning is a result of personal interaction, that primary learning occurs in intimate group settings, that people learn that socially-normative attitudes are either favorable or not, that deviant behavior results when conditions favorable to deviance exceed those unfavorable to violating the law, and that deviant behavior cannot be explained by general needs and values.  [28]  Accordingly, an individual learns various motives which are favorable to engaging in deviant behaviors as well as rationalizations and techniques for achieving them. While the behavior may be defined as deviant to the rest of society, within a particular individuals in-group the behavior may adhere to the groups norms. Akers (1985, 1989) expanded upon Sutherlands work by adding that deviance results when a person learns definitions that portray some conduct as a desirable, even though deviant, action.  [29]  If an individual is rewarded for a deviant act by his in-group then he becomes socialized to continue the behavior under the expectation of similar positive experiences for subsequent acts. Other Theories Deterrence theory asks whether the expectation of certain, severe, and swift punishment for engaging in deviant behavior would deter such behavior.  [30]  Rational choice theory addresses an individuals anticipated cost-benefit ratio of acting on deviant impulses. A greater expected or perceived benefit increases the likelihood that the individual will commit the act. Finally, conflict theory asserts that the development of formal social controls and laws are legitimized by the more powerful societal groups.  [31]   Conclusion The wide variation of social psychological theories of deviant behavior seeks to answer why individuals become motivated to engage in deviant behavior, how behaviors and attitudes are defined as deviant, what factors facilitate deviant behavior, why some deviant behavior is escalated, and what consequences exist.  [32]  Despite the number and variety of theories of deviance the commonality is that this concept is a socially-defined construct utilized to maintain a societys normative values. The disparities in definitions of deviance among societies make it difficult to establish an all-encompassing theory to explain the existence of deviant behavior in contemporary society.

12 Step

12-Step/Mutual Support Group Meeting Directions and Requirements Read Chapter 10 in advance of attending the meeting. 1. Students should choose the type of meeting they wish to attend: Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Overeaters Anonymous, Reformers Unanimous etc. Look in Chapter 10 for a list of others. Often these meetings are held at churches, shelters, and helping agencies. They are offered at various times of the day and multiple times each week. Rocky Mount has some really great AA and NA groups but you may attend anywhere you choose. 2. Go online for a meeting schedule for your area.Google the meeting type and then your county/town for a full listing. 3. Choose an OPEN (O) or Open Speaker (OS or Sp) meeting to attend. Do NOT attend a CLOSED meeting as they are for members only. 4. Do NOT take notes or attempt in any way to record the meeting; you are there to observe. Taking notes has the potential to violate the anonymous nature of these group fellowships. Recording the meeting is a violation of privacy and law! 5. Be respectful by identifying yourself by first name only and as a visitor or by saying you are there to learn about the program if asked. . You are there to OBSERVE, so do not attempt to interview members of the fellowship. Attend the meeting and experience what the members offer through sharing. Stay for the entire meeting. 7. ————————————————- After the meeting, privately jot down some immediate thoughts and reactions to what you observed and learned. Use first names ONLY if you recount a members story. ————————————————- ————————————————- These meetings usually have light refreshments (coffee, cookies , etc. . Also, many of the fellowships are self-supporting, so a basket may be passed around at the end of the meeting to collect $1 from members. You may contribute $1 if you choose to, but you are not expected to do so since you are not a member. Simply pass the basket to the next person. Out of respect for the meeting process, please avoid getting up or moving around during the meeting (as in going to the bathroom, etc). Although I think the experience is more meaningful when students attend alone, you may elect to go with one nother person. Please do not attend in small groups which will only draw attention to yourselves and create a spectacle. At all times be mindful that you are entering a safe and sacred space for those who suffer from addiction. Meetings often begin and end with a prayer. If you are not comfortable joining in the group prayer, feel free to simply remain silent. In preparing the paper for submission you will need to address the following: 1. What were your th oughts, feelings, preconceived notions prior to attending the meeting. 2.Describe the demographics of the fellowship: race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), gender, age, etc. 3. Describe the atmosphere of the fellowship, the meeting dynamics, and the group norms. How did the meeting progress? 4. Detail what you learned about those with chemical dependency, addiction, yourself, and your community through this event. What surprised you or impressed you? 5. How will your work as a social work practitioner or human service worker be impacted by what you have learned about 12-Step / Mutual Support Groups?Required: TNR 12 font, in-text references from the textbook with a reference page, and 4-6 pages of reflection and analysis tying back the experience of the meeting with the learning from the textbook and course. Upload the file in the DF in Moodle or email the Word document as an attachment through the student email account before the deadline. Late Policy applies to this assignme nt, so please submit it before the due date and time to insure the most points possible! Consult Moodle and the Course Outline for the deadline.

Divergent Boundaries